Racial Discrimination and Hispanics in the United States

Racial discrimination among Hispanics in the United States is on the rise along with stricter immigration laws, inadequate education for ESL classes, as well as they are prey to healthcare disparities. Data shows that many states in the United States are implementing tougher immigration laws for their individual states. Also, due to education cuts and kick-backs, English as a second language classes are becoming fewer in many school districts. Finally, health care disparities among Hispanics are on the rise due to lack of insurance, language barriers, and not enough medical resources to meet their needs. Recent data illustrates that many states in the U.S. are passing tougher immigrant laws within their states. For example, as of July 1,†¦show more content†¦The reasons for disparities in access to health care are many, but can include the following: †¢ Lack of insurance coverage. Without health insurance, patients are more likely to postpone medical care, more likely to go without needed medical care, and more likely to go without prescription medicines. Minority groups in the United States lack insurance coverage at higher rates than whites. †¢ Lack of a regular source of care. Without access to a regular source of care, patients have greater difficulty obtaining care, fewer doctor visits, and more difficulty obtaining prescription drugs. Compared to whites, minority groups in the United States are less likely to have a doctor they go to on a regular basis and are more likely to use emergency rooms and clinics as their regular source of care. †¢ Lack of financial resources. Although the lack of financial resources is a barrier to health care access for many Americans, the impact on access appears to be greater for minority populations. †¢ Legal barriers. Access to medical care by low-income immigrant minorities can be hindered by legal barriers to public insurance programs. For example, in the United States federal law bars states from providing Medicaid coverage to immigrants who have been in the country fewer than five years. †¢ Structural barriers. These barriers includeShow MoreRelatedRacial Discrimination and Hispanics in the United States2775 Words   |  12 PagesRacial discrimination â€Å"is a term used to describe unfair behavior afflicted on individuals based on their race† (LegalCyberTips, 2007, Para 1). The concept of racism has existed for decades. The act of one race attempting to exert supremacy over others has often resulted in racial discrimination (LegalCyberTips, 2007). Racial discrimination is a constant reality in the lives of Hispanic Americans in the United States. Due to alarming migration rates over the past several decades, the United StatesRead MoreEssay about Racial Discrimination and Hispanics in the United States1466 Words   |  6 PagesRacial discrimination has a long history in the United States of America. It dates back to the days of slavery. Mexican descendants are migrating to the United States at an alarming rate. The culture that the Mexicans experience in their own country is very different from the culture they experience upon arriving in the United States of America. The U. S. Census Bureau created the label â€Å"Hispanic† for convenience. Some people of Spanish descent think of themselves as â€Å"Hispanic† and others preferRead MoreRacial Diversity by Nancy Devan1417 Words   |  6 PagesRacial Diversity by Nancy DeVan Racial Diversity: Historical Worksheet Racial Diversity ETH/125 Nancy DeVan March 1, 2013 Associate Program Material Racial Diversity: Historical Worksheet Answer the following questions in 100 to 250 words each. Provide citations for all the sources you use. †¢ Throughout most of U.S. history, in most locations, what race has been in the majority? What is the common ancestral background of most members of this group? The  United States  isRead MoreIllegal Immigration in America Essay857 Words   |  4 Pagesproblem, and the death toll is rising as more people are attempting to illegally enter the United States. As a result of an increasing number of people trying to enter into the United States illegally, the border is now being guarded by an increasing number of border patrol officers. The United States implemented different laws and operations to prevent more illegal immigration from Mexico into the United States. The ‘Operation Gatekeeper’ was introduced in 1994, which increased the number of BorderRead More Social Discrimination 1556 Words   |  7 PagesDuring the Spring of 2012, The University of Southern Mississippis basketball team made their first appearance at the NCAA tournament since 1991. The team played against Kansas State University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. During the second half of the game, Kansas State was defeating the University of Southern Mississippi, due to their freshman point guard Angel Rodriguez who contributed many points. The Wildcats were leading the game by 70-64. As Angel Rodriguez was performing a free throw, someRead MoreRacial Discrimination : The Melting Pot Essay1181 Words   |  5 PagesWhen one is asked to define the United States of America, many say it is the â€Å"melting pot† meaning different races, cultures and people come together as one. However, America being called the â€Å"melting pot† is a controversial issue because, even though there are many different races in America, racism still exists. Many years after the world war I and II, the country is still struggling with racial prejudice and discrimination. While there are laws that are put into place to protect employees or jobRead MoreMulticultural Vs. Pluralistic Theory Essay1749 Words   |  7 Pagesincorporates their values, beliefs and traditions and integrates them on to a bigger cultural scale such as subcultures like Hispanics and African Americans. Steets (2014) explains each human child experiences a pluralism of significant others â€Å"in essential socialization and grows as a self in discovering a method for coordinating the diverse parts allotted to him or her. Hispanics and African Americans are two different and unique subgroups in the American society. Yet separately both groups have experiencedRead MoreThe Complexities And Processes Of Racial Housing Discrimination877 Words   |  4 PagesProcesses of Racial Housing discrimination† by Vincent J. Roscigno, Diana L. Karafin, and Griff tester, the main concept of racial disparity and inequality among neighborhoods is discussed, and how those inequalities became to be. They first highlight the wide range of potentially exclusionary practices, through qualitative and quantitative data comprised of over 750 verified housing discrimination cases (Roscigno, p. 162). Citing the U.S. Census, it is found that Blacks, compared to Hispanics and AsiansRead MoreRace Relations : A Resolved Issue?1644 Words   |  7 Pageswork place today. Race relations works to better the rights of minority citizens and to lessen the gap between the races. With the facts stated above, race relations are an important issue in the United States of America. Race is a much discussed social and political topi c. Race, especially in the United States is everybody’s business. Profiling is evident today, where going to an airport can be a hassle if you fit a certain stereotype. But race relations have come a long way. It has changed vastly fromRead MoreRacial Discrimination807 Words   |  4 Pagessubject to racial discrimination for decades. In the United States, racial prejudice in the criminal justice system has had a profound effect on the lives of African-Americans and Hispanics. From policing to trial to sentencing, racism against minorities occurs throughout the entire process in the criminal justice system. This research paper will outline some of the aspects and evidence of racial discrimination in the criminal justice system. ​Keywords: criminal justice, discrimination, profiling

The Hunters Phantom Chapter 12 Free Essays

â€Å"It’s going to be a lovely day – perfect for a picnic,† Meredith observed calmly. Bonnie had tactful y but firmly steered Celia into Matt’s car instead of Meredith’s, and so Meredith was alone with Alaric – at last! – for the first time since he’d arrived. Half of her just wanted to pul off the road, grab Alaric, and kiss him and kiss him, she was so glad that he was final y here. We will write a custom essay sample on The Hunters: Phantom Chapter 12 or any similar topic only for you Order Now Al through the insanity of the last few months, she’d wished that he were there to fight by her side, to depend on. But the other half of her wanted to pul off the road, grab Alaric, and demand that he explain to her exactly what his relationship was with Dr. Celia Connor. Instead, here she was, driving placidly, hands at ten and two on the steering wheel, making smal talk about the weather. She felt like a coward, and Meredith Suarez was no coward. But what could she say? What if she was just paranoid, and making a ridiculous fuss about a strictly professional relationship? She glanced at Alaric out of the corner of her eye. â€Å"So†¦Ã¢â‚¬  she said. â€Å"Tel me more about your research in Japan.† Alaric ran his hands through his already tousled hair and grinned at her. â€Å"The trip was fascinating,† he said. â€Å"Celia’s so intel igent and experienced. She just puts together al these clues about a civilization. It was a real eye-opener for me to watch her decipher so much from the evidence in the graves there. I never knew much about forensic anthropology before, but she was able to reconstruct an amazing amount about the culture of Unmei no Shima.† â€Å"Sounds like she’s simply amazing,† Meredith said, hearing the acid in her tone. Apparently Alaric didn’t notice it. He smiled a little. â€Å"It took quite a while for her to take my paranormal research seriously,† he said rueful y. â€Å"Parapsychology isn’t particularly wel regarded by the experts in other scientific disciplines. They think people like me who choose to spend their lives studying the supernatural are charlatans, or naive. Or a little crazy.† Meredith made herself speak pleasantly. â€Å"You were able to convince her at last, though? That’s good.† â€Å"Sort of,† Alaric answered. â€Å"We got to be friends, anyway, so she stopped thinking I was a complete fraud. I think she’s found it al a lot more believable after the one day she’s spent here, though.† He gave a wry smile. â€Å"She tried to hide it, but she was blown away yesterday when Stefan saved her. The existence of a vampire makes it clear that there’s a lot conventional science knows nothing about. I’m sure she’l want to examine Stefan if he’l let her.† â€Å"I would imagine so,† said Meredith dryly, resisting the urge to ask Alaric why he thought Stefan would cooperate when he had seemed so displeased that Alaric had told Celia about him. Alaric slid a hand across the car seat until he was close enough to run a finger gently along Meredith’s arm. â€Å"I learned a lot while I was gone,† he said earnestly, â€Å"but I’m real y more concerned about what’s going on right now in Fel ‘s Church.† â€Å"You mean this dark magic that is supposedly rising here?† Meredith asked. â€Å"I mean the dark magic that seems to be targeting you and Celia,† Alaric said forceful y. â€Å"I’m not sure either of you is taking it seriously enough.† Me and Celia, thought Meredith. He’s just as worried about her as he is about me. Maybe more. â€Å"I know we’ve faced danger in the past, but I feel responsible for Celia,† Alaric went on. â€Å"I brought her here, and I’d never be able to forgive myself if something happened to her.† Definitely more, Meredith thought bitterly, and shrugged off Alaric’s hand. She instantly regretted the motion. What was the matter with her? This wasn’t who she was. She’d always been the calm, rational one. Now here she was feeling like, wel , like a jealous girlfriend. â€Å"And now it’s threatening you, too,† Alaric went on. He tentatively touched her knee, and this time Meredith let his hand stay. â€Å"Meredith, I know how strong you are. But it’s terrifying to me that this doesn’t seem to be the kind of enemy we’re used to. How can we fight what we can’t even see?† â€Å"Al we can do is be vigilant,† Meredith said. Her training had been comprehensive, but even she didn’t understand this new evil. Yet she knew how to protect herself much better than Alaric realized. She glanced at him out of the corner of her eye. His window was open a crack, and the breeze ruffled his sandy hair. They knew each other so wel , yet he stil didn’t know her biggest secret. For a moment she considered tel ing him, but then he turned to her and said, â€Å"Celia’s putting on a brave face, but I can tel she’s scared. She’s not as tough as you are.† Meredith stiffened. No, this wasn’t the right time to tel Alaric that she was a hunter-slayer. Not when she was driving. Not when she was this angry. Suddenly his hand felt heavy and clammy on her knee, but she knew she couldn’t push it off again without betraying her feelings. Inside, though, she was raging at how the conversation kept coming back to Celia. Alaric had thought of her first. And even when he was talking about the danger to Meredith, he couched it in terms of what had happened to Celia. Alaric’s voice became a buzz in the background as Meredith clutched the steering wheel so tightly her knuckles whitened. Real y, why was she surprised that Alaric had feelings for Celia? Meredith wasn’t blind. She could be objective. Celia was smart, accomplished, beautiful. Celia and Alaric were in the same place in their lives. Meredith hadn’t even started col ege yet. She was attractive – she knew that – and certainly intel igent. But Celia was al that and more: She was Alaric’s equal in a way Meredith couldn’t be just yet. Sure, Meredith was a vampire hunter. But Alaric didn’t know that. And when he did know, would he admire her strength? Or would he turn away from her, scared of her abilities, and toward someone more academic, like Celia? A black bubble of misery fil ed Meredith’s chest. â€Å"I’m beginning to think I should take Celia away from here if I can get her to leave.† Alaric sounded reluctant, but Meredith could hardly hear him. She felt as cold as if she were being enveloped in a fog. â€Å"Maybe I should get her back to Boston. I think you should leave Fel ‘s Church, too, Meredith, if you can convince your family to let you go away for the rest of the summer. You could come with us, or maybe there’s a relative you could stay with if your family wouldn’t like that. I’m worried that you aren’t safe here.† â€Å"Nothing’s happened to me yet,† said Meredith, surprised by the calm of her own voice, when such dark emotions were boiling inside her. â€Å"And I have a responsibility to be here and protect the town. If you think Celia wil be safer away from here, do what you and she think is best. But you know there’s no guarantee that whatever’s threatening us won’t fol ow her somewhere else. And at least here there are people who believe in the danger. â€Å"Besides,† she added thoughtful y, â€Å"the threat to Celia may be over. Maybe once the attack is averted, it moves on to someone else. My name didn’t appear until after Stefan saved Celia. If so, then the danger is only to me.† Not that you care, she thought viciously, and was surprised at herself. Of course Alaric cared. It was just that he seemed to care about what happened to Celia more. Her fingernails cut into her palms around the steering wheel as she careful y fol owed Stefan’s car off the road and toward the parking lot for Hot Springs. â€Å"Stop!† Alaric shouted, panic in his voice, and Meredith automatical y slammed on the brakes. The car squealed to a halt. â€Å"What?† Meredith gasped. â€Å"What is it?† And then she saw her. Dr. Celia Connor had gotten out of Matt’s car to cross to the path up to the springs. Meredith had come speeding right toward her. Only inches from Meredith’s front bumper, Celia was frozen, her pretty face gray with fear, her mouth a perfect O. One more second, and Meredith would have kil ed her. How to cite The Hunters: Phantom Chapter 12, Essay examples

Analysis Of The Movie The Pursuit Of Happiness Essay Example For Students

Analysis Of The Movie The Pursuit Of Happiness Essay To what extent would a parent go to keep their child protected, safe, and happy? The movie â€Å"The Pursuit of Happiness,† a biographical drama based on a true story, portrays the hardships that an African American man (played by Will Smith) and his son face together. This movie reveals the striking reality of poverty and emphasizes that most Americans are not living the ‘American Dream.’ Hollywood generally portrays an unrealistic image of the average American and leads people to believe that everyone is meeting financial requirements on time, purchasing nice vehicles, enjoying life in fancy homes, and not dealing with constant money shortages. Director Gabriele Muccino does an amazing job at reversing this image by exposing viewers a different side. He reveals how some people in America are struggling just to survive. It changes the viewer’s perception of the average American life and creates a sense of motivation the viewer can appreciate. The stars of this drama film are Will Smith and his real life son Jaden smith. Everyone who knows Smith knows him from his hit role on the sitcom â€Å"The Fresh Prince Of Bel-Air,† where he plays a goofy, laid back teenager that was kicked out of his house and moves in with his wealthy uncle. Smith was then recognized for his early stardom and began to receive deals from big time Hollywood producers. His first big-hit movie was â€Å"Bad Boys,† where he and Martin Lawrence were co-stars. This movie launched Smith’s career as action movie guru, mainly for movies such as â€Å"Bad Boys 2† and â€Å"I-Robot. † Although his role in â€Å"The Pursuit of Happiness† wasn’t typical for Will Smith, it was more inspiring and dynamic than any other character he played.In the movie Smith is portrayed as an investor named Chris Ga. . an unavoidable reality that many people live today. This movie is based on a true story which exemplifies Muccino’s purpose. He wanted this movie to be an accurate portrayal of the common struggle many people face day to day. In the African American race, men are constantly stereotyped as bad fathers who leave their families and fail to pay child support. But this film succeeded in debunking such stereotypes. Although Smith’s character isn’t able to provide for his son, he does not give up and walk away. This movie also does an excellent job of illustrating the concept that most of the most successful people start from the bottom in the real world, and don’t always have it all to begin with. Gabrielle’s ultimate aim was to reveal a hidden reality for many viewers and help share a message and story about what the pursuit of happiness truly means for each individual.

To Kill A Mockingbird, Three Representations of Mockingbirds Essay Example For Students

To Kill A Mockingbird, Three Representations of Mockingbirds Essay A mockingbird is a sort of bird which sings songs that are beautiful and pleasing to the world, but this bird never hurts anyone. It only makes beautiful music for everyone, never doing any harm. In the novel, the mockingbird serves as a symbol for the people who do good deeds and are hurt by people or society in some way or another. There are three characters in this novel that symbolize this peaceful, innocent, beautiful creature; these characters are Atticus, Tom Robinson, and Scout. The peace, tranquility, innocence, and role as a father make Atticus one of the most significant mockingbirds in this novel. We will write a custom essay on To Kill A Mockingbird, Three Representations of Mockingbirds specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Hostility has never been an issue for Atticus; he is always kind and loving to everyone. One example of this is his defense of Tom Robinson in court, even though he knew that he would lose. Atticus Finchs overwhelming kindness is also expressed in his kindness to the Cunninghams; accepting the youngest Cunningham for dinner and accepting crops and food goods as payment to debt owed by Mr. Cunningham. Not all people in this cruel, unjust world will do such a thing as to accept crops as payment for a monetary debt; Atticus Finch is not an ordinary man. He is destroyed internally by the unjust verdict of Tom Robinsons case; all of the evidence and arguments on Atticuss part would have proven him innocent in a just court of law, but the guilty verdict shows racial slander and injustice solely on the colour of Toms skin. This loving, tranquil man is also hurt internally when Tom is shot seventeen times and killed trying to escape the prison; a more just consequence could have been administered rather than shooting him seventeen times. Without Atticus Finch in this novel, the obvious theme of racial prejudice would not be as effective. Tom Robinson, through his actions, peacefulness, and innocence, is without a doubt one of the best representations of a mockingbird in this novel. He is always doing good deeds for everyone, never charging a cent.. Even after he chops up Mayellas chiffarobe, he refuses to even take a nickel; he said his work was for free. Tom is one of the characters in the book with the best morals, yet he is killed unjustly: Your fathers right, she said. Mockingbirds dont do one thing but make music for us to enjoy . . . but sing their hearts out for us. Thats why its a sin to kill a mockingbird Lee, p.94 ch 10. Tom Robinson quite possibly has the best morals of any other character in the book. And even with those in modern society, when they are juxtaposed with Tom, their morals would seem horrible. He is nice, loving, considerate, and loyal to everyone in the town, no matter what they have done to him before. Even through his horrible and erroneous indictment, he still showed nothing but love and respect for everyone in the town. When Tom was slain, a transgression was committed  by the prison guards. Tom was hurt by first being discriminatorily and unjustly convicted of raping Mayella Ewell, and secondly being shot at prison while trying to escape. Mr. Robinson did not merit this, nor would anyone else of his level of innocence. Scout is conceivably the most innocent of all characters in To Kill a Mockingbird. Her innocence is best described at the beginning of the book: Your father does not know how to teach. You can have a seat now. I mumbled that I was sorry and retired meditating upon my crime Lee p. 5 ch. 1 This demonstrates that although the crime accused of was not a large one at all, she was still remorseful and apologetic. A large portion of her innocence is accounted by her age and upbringing; she is just a small girl, and she is raised by one of the most loving, considerate men in the whole town. Scout Finch is very polite and mindful to her father; she never seems to be much of a problem to him. .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e , .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e .postImageUrl , .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e , .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e:hover , .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e:visited , .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e:active { border:0!important; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e:active , .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u48e4a29a75ccfb9fc514ec762a27170e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Early American Literature EssayShe is also very considerate of other people, as can be seen from her growing interest in the Tom Robinson case and through her devastation from the verdict. Scout Finch is not hurt by any person in particular, but by her own realization of how cruel the world really is and the constant injustice that lingers about, taken in as often as one would breathe. Scout is a mockingbird in its purest form; she never meaningfully hurts anyone, and she is of the utmost importance to the theme and emotional aspects and values of the novel. The mockingbird truly is a very powerful symbol in the form used in this novel. The mockingbird symbol in the novel acquires a profound moral significance. For, unlike the world of tender love and longing of Walt Whitmans Alabama birds, Harper Lees Alabama presents a bleak picture of a narrow world torn by hatred , injustice, violence and cruelty, and we lament to see what man has made of man. Dave, 245 It represents a person who is full of peacefulness, innocence, and tranquility yet is still slowly but steadily torn apart piece by piece by the unrelenting injustice and cruelty of society. Atticus, Scout, Tom Robinson, and many others provide examples of this; they are victims to the cruel world they are forced to live in and cannot escape.

Euthyphro essays

Euthyphro essays Socrates encounters Euthyphro outside the court of Athens. Socrates has been called to court on charges of impiety by Meletus, and Euthyphro has come to prosecute his own father for having unintentionally killed a murderous hired hand. Socrates flatters Euthyphro, suggesting that Euthyphro must be a great expert in religious matters if he is willing to prosecute his own father on so questionable a charge. Euthyphro concurs that he does indeed know all there is to be known about what is holy. Socrates urges Euthyphro to instruct him and to teach him what holiness is, since Euthyphro's teaching might help Socrates in his trial against Meletus. First, Euthyphro suggests that holiness is persecuting religious offenders. Socrates finds this definition unsatisfying, since there are many holy deeds aside from that of persecuting offenders. He asks Euthyphro instead to give him a general definition that identifies that one feature that all holy deeds share in common. Euthyphro suggests that what is holy is what is agreeable to the gods, in response to which Socrates points out that the gods often quarrel, so what is agreeable to one might not be agreeable to all. Euthyphro's most important attempt to define holiness comes with his suggestion that what is holy is what is approved of by all the gods. Socrates sets up a rather elaborate argument to show that the two cannot be equivalent. What is holy gets approved of by the gods because it is holy, so what is holy determines what gets approved of by the gods. And what gets approved of by the gods in turn determines what is approved of by the gods. It follows from this reasoning that what is holy cannot be the same thing as what is approved of by the gods, since one of these two determines what gets approved of by the gods and the other is determined by what gets approved of by the gods. Euthyphro is next led to suggest that holiness is a kind of justice, specifically, that kind which is...

Battle of Agincourt - Hundred Years War

Battle of Agincourt - Hundred Years' War Battle of Agincourt: Date Conflict: The Battle of Agincourt was fought October 25, 1415, during the Hundred Years War (1337-1453). Armies Commanders: English King Henry Vapprox. 6,000-8,500 men French Constable of France Charles dAlbretMarshal Boucicautapprox. 24,000-36,000 men Battle of Agincourt - Background: In 1414, King Henry V of England began discussions with his nobles regarding renewing the war with France to assert his claim on the French throne. He held this claim through his grandfather, Edward III who begun the Hundred Years War in 1337. Initially reluctant, they encouraged the king to negotiate with the French. In doing so, Henry was willing to renounce his claim to the French throne in exchange for 1.6 million crowns (the outstanding ransom on French King John II - captured at Poitiers in 1356), as well as French recognition of English dominion over occupied lands in France. These included Touraine, Normandy, Anjou, Flanders, Brittany, and Aquitaine. To seal the deal, Henry was willing to marry the young daughter of the chronically insane King Charles VI, Princess Catherine, if he received a dowry of 2 million crowns.  Believing these demands too high, the French countered with a dowry of 600,000 crowns and an offer to cede lands in Aquitaine.  Negotiations quickly stalled as the French refused to increase the dowry. With talks deadlocked and feeling personally insulted by French actions, Henry successfully asked for war on April 19, 1415. Assembling an army of around, Henry crossed the Channel with around 10,500 men and landed near Harfleur on August 13/14. Battle of Agincourt - Moving to Battle: Quickly investing Harfleur, Henry hoped to take the city as a base before advancing east to Paris and then south to Bordeaux. Meeting a determined defense, the siege lasted longer than the English had initially hoped and Henrys army was beset by a variety of diseases such as dysentery. When the city finally fell on September 22, the majority of the campaigning season had passed. Assessing his situation, Henry elected to move northeast to his stronghold at Calais where the army could winter in safety. The march was also intended to demonstrate his right to rule Normandy. Leaving a garrison at Harfleur, his forces departed on October 8. Hoping to move quickly, the English army left their artillery and much of the baggage train as well as carried limited provisions. While the English were occupied at Harfleur, the French struggled to raise an army to oppose them. Gathering forces at Rouen, they were not ready by the time the city fell. Pursuing Henry, the French sought to blockade the English along the River Somme. These maneuvers proved somewhat successful as Henry was forced to turn southeast to seek an uncontested crossing. As a result, food became scarce in the English ranks. Finally crossing the river at Bellencourt and Voyenes on October 19, Henry pressed on towards Calais. The English advance was shadowed by the growing French army under the nominal command of Constable Charles dAlbret and Marshal Boucicaut. On October 24, Henrys scouts reported that the French army had moved across their path and was blocking the road to Calais. Though his men were starving and suffering from disease, he halted and formed for battle along a ridge between the woods of Agincourt and Tramecourt. In a strong position, his archers drove stakes into the ground to protect against cavalry attack. Battle of Agincourt - Formations: Though Henry did not desire battle due to being badly outnumbered, he understood that the French would only grow stronger. In deploying, men under the Duke of York formed the English right, while Henry led the center and Lord Camoys commanded the left.  Occupying the open ground between the two woods, the English line of men at arms was four ranks deep. The archers assumed positions on the flanks with another group possibly being located in the center. Conversely the French were eager for battle and anticipated victory. Their army formed in three lines with dAlbret and Boucicault leading the first with the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon. The second line was led by the Dukes of Bar and Alenà §on and the Count of Nevers. Battle of Agincourt - The Armies Clash: The night of October 24/25 was marked by heavy rain which turned the newly plowed fields in the area into a muddy quagmire. As the sun rose, the terrain favored the English as the narrow space between the two woods worked to negate the French numerical advantage. Three hours passed and the French, awaiting reinforcements and perhaps having learned from their defeat at Crà ©cy, did not attack. Forced to make the first move, Henry took a risk and advanced between the woods to within extreme range for his archers. The French failed to strike with the English were vulnerable (Map). As a result, Henry was able to establish a new defensive position and his archers were able to fortify their lines with stakes. This done, they unleashed a barrage with their longbows. With the English archers filling the sky with arrows, the French cavalry began a disorganized charge against the English position with the first line of men-at-arms following. Cut down by the archers, the cavalry failed to breach the English line and succeeded in doing little more than churning the mud between the two armies. Hemmed in by the woods, they retreated through the first line weakening its formation. Slogging forward through the mud, the French infantry was exhausted by the exertion while also taking losses from the English archers. Reaching the English men-at-arms, they were able to initially push them back. Rallying, the English soon began inflicting heavy losses as the terrain prevented the greater French numbers from telling. The French were also hampered by the press of numbers from the side and behind which limited their ability to attack or defend effectively. As the English archers expended their arrows, they drew swords and other weapons and began attacking the French flanks. As a melee developed, the second French line joined the fray. As the battle raged, dAlbret was killed and sources indicate that Henry played an active role at the front. Having defeated the first two French lines, Henry remained wary as the third line, led by the Counts of Dammartin and Fauconberg, remained a threat. The only French success during the fighting came when Ysembart dAzincourt led a small force in a successful raid on the English baggage train. This, along with the menacing actions of the remaining French troops, led Henry to order the killing of the majority of his prisoners to prevent them from attacking should the battle resume. Though criticized by modern scholars, this action was accepted as necessary at the time. Assessing the massive losses already sustained, the remaining French troops departed the area. Battle of Agincourt - Aftermath: Casualties for the Battle of Agincourt are not known with certainty, though many scholars estimate the French suffered 7,000-10,000 with another 1,500 nobles taken prisoner. English losses are generally accepted to be around 100 and perhaps as high as 500. Though he had won a stunning victory, Henry was unable to press home his advantage due to the weakened state of his army. Reaching Calais on October 29, Henry returned to England the following month where he was greeted as a hero. Though it would take several more years of campaigning to achieve his goals, the devastation wrought upon the French nobility at Agincourt made Henrys later efforts easier. In 1420, he was able to conclude the Treaty of Troyes which recognized him as the regent and heir to the French throne. Selected Sources History of War: Battle of Agincourt

Introduction about cell cycle by emphasizing DNA replication Research Paper

Introduction about cell cycle by emphasizing DNA replication - Research Paper Example Evidently, there is a need to ensure that DNA replication occurs only once per cell cycle to prevent daughter cells having inappropriate copy numbers and other potentially fatal errors (Byun et al, 2005, Lou et al, 2008, Kurth& Gautier, 2010). This means that DNA replication is tightly controlled by a number of different cell elements, including RCs and the cyclin-dependent kinase (CdK) known as Cdc28p (Drury, Perkins &Diffley, 2000). The CdK family is important in cell cycle regulation as they phosphorylate proteins involved in cell cycle checkpoints. During the assembly of RCs at an origin, a family of proteins (Mcm2-7) becomes associated with the DNA (Randell et al, 2010, Lydeard et al, 2010), a mechanism that requires the origin-recognition complex (ORC) and Cdc6 (cell division cycle 6) (Randall et al, 2006). The loading of Mcm2-7 helicase onto origin-proximal DNA for replication is directed by the ORC and Cdc6, initiated by sequential ATP hydrolysis (Randall et al, 2006). This occurs at a precise time during G1 in part due to the mechanisms of Cdc28p (Drury et al, 2000), which plays the dual function of preventing RC formation and initiating the replication of DNA within the cell cycle (Drury et al, 2010). Cdc6p is also important in the cell cycle because it prevents DNA re-replication, as without it there may be multiple rounds of DNA re-replication without the mitosis event (Drury et al, 2010). It is possible to judge which phase of the cell cycle a cell is at through levels of Cdc6p: high during G1 and then gets phosphoryl ated during the S phase (Rizzardi& Cook, 2013). Perkins, Drury &Diffley (2001) showed the importance of CDC6 by introducing mutant alleles of the CDC6 gene. Two major transformants of CDC6 were chosen. CDC6-d1 ensured that the cell could not progress onto S phase, as there was abnormal assembly of the pre-RC complex. CDC6-d2 ensured that

Emotions of a woman on the birth of a child Essay

Emotions of a woman on the birth of a child - Essay Example I didn’t like the frog-looking thing that the ultra-sound revealed, nor the pumpkin that my mother said was inside me, nor the stork stories of Hans Christian Andersen fairytales. I imagined instead that I had swallowed the moon and that it was growing and expanding, filling me with incredible light. First, it was a period of darkness when I couldn’t feel her at all, then a sickle-shaped crescent moon, then a big round full moon that made me waddle in the days, and toss and turn at nights, and crave Kentucky Fried Chicken at midnight and be repulsed by it when I got it.But now the white-hot light that shafted through me was not the gentle glow that I’d felt for the past three months, but a tearing searing volcanic eruption of a life force that needed at all costs to be brought forth. I felt like a mountain that was being split asunder by a force greater than me, and I thought that I would die from the six-hour ordeal, like Rachel in the Bible story when she gave birth to Benjamin. But no, finally she released me from my woman’s curse of bearing children in pain (from eating the aching attractive but forbidden fruit). There was a sweltering silence, and in my groggy post-natal haze I heard a sharp short slap, then a wild wail that I couldn’t believe was human.When they put her in my arms I was spellbound. It was impossible that this was her: the moon-thing from my belly, the volcano that erupted from me, the werewolf that wailed at being brought into the world.... I stared at her in amazement. I didn't have enough eyes to look at her, her skin like Starbucks mocha that would eventually "brown" like Grandma's chocolate cake to look more like mine. I didn't have enough lips to kiss her soft skin that dented under my touch like a downy pillow. Not enough nostrils to inhale her smell -- so strange yet sweet -- a smell of new life. Nor enough hands to touch her incredibly smooth warm skin, to fight with her to unfold her tiny balls of hands that wound around anything it could catch. Seeing her for the first time was more beautiful than Shakespeare's "russet-clad" sunset, more thrilling than my first kiss. And there were many firsts that have dotted this past year like the occasional caramel-coated nut in an already delicious Nestle Drumstick cone: the first time she opened her eyes and revealed her dark brown eyes that she had sneakily kept hidden like an opal; her first smile, like a burst of sunlight peeping out from under a shadowy mountain; her first tear that terrified me and made me want to rip apart the invisible beast that hurt her like an enrage mother lion; the first time she held my hand and a shot of love ran from my womb, up my spine and through my heart. I am still looking forward to her first words, and hope they will be "Ma-ma", which will be like Beethoven's Fifth Symphony to my ears (strange but magnificently beautiful), and not to mention her first steps on chubby drumstick-like legs (I ate too much KFC when I was pregnant), her first cut knee, her first day of school, her first crush Looking at her now, a little brown leprechaun from my own body, with her impish toothless grin, her lovable moon face and scraggly weed-like hair that I don't know how I will ever comb, I'm

Two detective stories Essay Example for Free

Two detective stories Essay For my English coursework I am going to explain the similarities and the differences between the two detective stories The Speckled Band written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and Forever After written by Jim Thomson. The Speckled Band was written in 1892, the detective in this story was none other than the famous Sherlock Holmes. The story was set in the 1890s so the people reading it at the time could relate to the story. Jim Thomson wrote Forever After but in this story there was no famous character, Jim Thomson had to create all of the characters from new. This means he had more flexibility to write the story. Conan Doyle was English and Jim Thomson was American. Obviously this would change the style of writing. Also The Speckled Band was written in 1892 and Forever After was written in 1960 so there was a large difference in the time it was written. This also means that the style of writing is different. The difference in age will also mean that when people read the story now, it will greatly affect how they can relate to it. In they1890s the people could relate to the speckled band because they where living in the same situation and the same lifestyle, but that was a long time ago so when people look at it now they might not be able to understand the situations and circumstances that they where in. The way of life has changed considerably. In the speckled band was written in the normal way of writing detective stories. There is a detective, a shady, typical villain, a spooky house, a suspect, many red herrings and a very difficult mystery to solve. The surprise in the story is when the mystery has been solved. Holmes already has a reputation before you even pick up the book. This gives Conan Doyle the advantage of not having to create a character. Dr Watson starts off the book by talking about all of the seventy odd mysteries he has witnessed his friend Sherlock Holmes investigate and solve. The he singles out one story in particular that he remembers this is the story of the speckled band. This makes you think that this story is special and is different from all of his other stories if this is the story, which he remembers in particularly. The story begins and a strange woman has arrived one early morning at Sherlock Holmess house. The author describes her as a lady heavily veiled and dressed in black. This told me that she is possibly mourning someones death; this creates a very dark and scary atmosphere, it also makes the reader very curious. This early arrival also makes the reader wonder what story this woman has arrived to tell and her appearance gives the impression that it could be a dark and frightening tale.

Tecumseh Essays -- essays research papers

Tecumseh ,Shawnee war chief, was born at Old Piqua, on the Mad River in western Ohio. In 1774, his father, Puckeshinwa, was killed at the Battle of Point Pleasant, and in 1779 his mother, Methoataske, accompanied those Shawnees who migrated to Missouri, later died. Raised by an older sister, Tecumpease, Tecumseh would play war games with other fellow youths in his tribe. Tecumseh accompanied an older brother, Chiksika, on a series of raids against frontier settlements in Kentucky and Tennessee in the late 1780’s. Chiksika had a vision that he would not survive the battle at Buchanan’s station he went ahead as plan and attacked the stockade and was mortally wounded and was carried from the battle field and the dying warrior asked not to be buried but to be placed on a hill. Tecumseh and the other’s retreated back to a Cherokee village where most went back to Ohio while Tecumseh and some other warriors stayed behind. After that Tecumseh went on mostly hunting but occasionally attacking settler’s. After that moved back towards home and come to find out that the Shawnee’s had moved on to where it’s much safer. The battle of Fallen Timber’s broke confidence in British assistance as well as many casualties. Pissed off by the Indian defeat, he refused to sign the Treaty of Greenville (1795). In the 1800’s Tecumseh began to show signs of a prominent war chief. He led a group of yong Indian warriors to a village on the White River in east-central Indiana. There in 1805 Lalawethika ex...

Discipline and Improve Students Behaviour in Classroom Education Essay

The problem of how best to discipline and improve students’ behaviour in classroom is of permanent interest. This review is oriented to searching different methodologies concerning students’ behaviour in classrooms, teachers’ discipline strategies and behavioural management. Different points of view and different examples for appropriate behaviour have been discussed referring to the topic. The sources reviewed present different solutions. This paper examines also the classroom environment and its relation to successful behaviour implementation. The first paragraphs give different definitions conversant with behaviour and discipline according to the authors’ view. The continuation of the literature review is presented by different approaches and strategies concerning a good behavioural management. This elaboration sets out some of the arguments and recommendations which are discussed in more detail. Charles C. M. submits several definitions corresponding to behaviour: Behaviour refers to everything that people do. Misbehaviour is behaviour that is not appropriate to the setting or situation in which it occurs. Discipline†¦ are strategies, procedures, and structures that teachers use to support a positive learning environment. Behaviour management is a science that puts an accent on what teachers have to do to prevent misbehaviour (Charles 1). Students’ behaviour depends on several factors such as traditions, demographic settings, economic resources, family, experiences, and more. Some authors have made important contributions in managing classroom discipline related the twentieth century. Jacob Kounin (1971), one of them, reports that appropriate student behaviour can be maintained through classroom organization, lesson management, and approach to individual students. Rudolf Dreikurs (1972) on the other hand emphasizes the desire to belong as a primary need of students in school. He identifies types of misbehaviour and gives ideas about how to make students feel a part of the class or group (p. 63). William Glasser (1986) shows another view, making a case that the behaviour of someone else cannot be controlled. He reckons that everybody can only control his own behaviour. Personally I support this idea that we must control ourselves. According to the opinion of the other authors, Linda Albert’s, Barbara Coloroso’s, Nelson and Lott’s a good discipline in the classroom can be achieved through Belonging, Cooperation, and Self-Control. A similar idea of classroom management is also presented by Rackel C. F who declares that the teachers, considered it was necessary, â€Å"to develop students’ sense of belonging to the school† (p. 1071) The author supports the opinion of the significance of a good school climate and tells that it might be precondition for facilitating positive youth development (Rackel C. F 1071). In order to attain to a good classroom atmosphere there is a need of growing positive relationship between students and teachers, motivation the students’ participation and clear rules to control classroom discipline (Rackel C. F 1072). In addition these above-mentioned views can be defined as a positive outlook as regards to improving the classroom management. Another point of view inside the subject of managing discipline is through active student involvement and through pragmatic Classroom management (Charles, C. M. 2007, p. 7). Discipline through raising student responsibility is also positively oriented approach for classroom management. The three principles that improve behaviour presented in the article â€Å"Self-assessment of understanding† are positivity, choice, and reflection (Charles, C. M. 12). There the author explains the principles meaning. He states that being positive means being a motivator. When students have opportunity to share their choices they can present themselves with a good behaviour. â€Å"Asking students questions that encourage them to reflect on their behaviour can help them to change behaviour† (Charles 14). Rebecca Giallo and Emma Little (2003, p. 22) from RMIT University Australia give their comments also on classroom behaviour management. They claim that confidence is one of the most important characteristic that influence teachers’ effectiveness in classroom management. Giallo and Little (2003, 22) based on the previous statement of Evans & Tribble accept that less confident teachers seem more vulnerable to stressful classrooms. They maintain the theory that the classroom stress is a reason for giving up a teacher’s career. In school the stress can be overcome through involving of drastic measures concerning managing a good discipline. One of the most popular strategy for solving behaviour problems is punishment. By reason of the popularity of the subject in the field of education, many experts have written articles and books as well as given lectures on discipline and punishment. Anne Catey based on Dreikur’s words considers that there is no need of using punishment in class. Based on Catey’s words kids need to have a chance they can share their ideas in the class (1). This is the best way to â€Å"smooth, productive functioning in schools† (Charles, C. M, 1999). Anne Catey from Cumberland High School gets an interview from several teachers in Illinois district about their discipline practices. She accepts the suggestion given by Lawrence as mentioning that, â€Å"very effective technique is a brief conference, either in the hallway or after class, with the misbehaving student† (Punishment, 1). Anne Catey has her own techniques for classroom management. She disagrees with Lawrence viewing about humour as one of the bad strategies for effective discipline and believes that using of humour can be effective if done without abasing the students (Punishment, 1). In this way she gives each one a bit of individual attention. When some of her students are a bit distracted on one task, talking to friends instead of reading Catey says, â€Å"Since I always assume the best of my students, I assume the noise I hear is students reading aloud or discussing their novels. However, it’s time to read silently now instead of reading aloud† (Punishment, 1). This sounds as a good strategy but personally I disclaim this thesis. This doesn’t work all the time. I am trying to be strict with my students and according to this the pupils have to observe the rules in my classes. That doesn’t mean that I admit the severe punishment but rarely the stern warnings. I agree with the following techniques used by Anne Catey (2001) to modify behaviour including giving â€Å"zeroes for incomplete, inappropriate, and/or missing work and taking points off at the end of a quarter for lack of participation and/or poor listening†. As expected, these methods are effective for some of the pupils but not for the others. Related to the above-mentioned topic it could be noticed some of the classroom discipline strategies utilized in Australia, China and Israel. On the basis of elaborated research in these countries some psychologists and school principals (Xing Qui, Shlomo Romi, 2005) conclude that Chinese teachers appear less punitive and aggressive than do those in Israel or Australia. Australian classrooms are presented as having least discussion and recognition and most punishment. In Australia (Lewis, 2005) as concerned to the study the teachers are characterized by two distinct discipline styles. The first of these is called â€Å"Coercive† discipline and comprises punishment and aggression (yelling in anger, sarcasm group punishments, tc). The second style, comprising discussion, hints, recognition, involvement and Punishment, is called â€Å"Relationship based discipline† (Lewis 7). Coercive discipline according to the above-mentioned authors means the teacher’s behaviour is such as â€Å"shouting all the time, unfairly blaming students, picking on kids, and being rude, to stimulate student resistance and subsequent misbehaviour† (Lewis, Ramon 2). The importance of classroom discipline arises not only from students’ behaviour and learning as outlined above. It depends also on the role of the teacher. Sometimes it is obvious that teachers are not be able to manage students’ classroom discipline and it can result in stress. So,â€Å"classroom discipline is a cohesion of teacher stress† (Lewis 3). Chan (1998), reports on the stressors of over 400 teachers in Hong Kong, claims that student behaviour management rates as the second most significant factor stressing teachers. In the article Teachers’ Classroom discipline several strategies have been presented for improving classroom management. They are Punishing (move students’ seats, detention), Rewarding (rewards, praises), Involvement in decision-making (decides with the class what should happen to students who misbehave), Hinting, Discussion and Aggression. Another strategy for improving discipline in class is conducting questionnaires between the students. It is an appropriate approach for defining students’ opinion about behaviour problems. In each Chinese and Israeli school a random sample of classes at all year levels have been selected. As a research assistant administered questionnaires to these classes their teachers completed their questionnaires (Yakov J. Katz 7). In comparison to all of the mentioned countries the model in China is a little different in that students support use of all strategies except Aggression and Punishment. Based on the conducted research the only strategy to range within a country by more than 2 ranks is Punishment, which ranks as the most common strategy in Australia, and the fourth and fifth most commonly used strategy in Israel and China. The author, Xing Qui generalises that, â€Å"there is not more Punishment at the level 7-12. Classroom discipline techniques showed that students in China, compared to those in Australia or Israel, report less usage of Punishment and Aggression and greater use of Discussion and the other positive strategies. At the end of their article â€Å"Teachers’ classroom discipline and Student Misbehaviour in Australia, China and Israel â€Å"(p. 14) the authors recommend that teachers need to work harder to gain quality relationships with difficult students. What I have drawn from reviewing literature so far is that teachers are able to use different techniques for enhancing classroom management in their profession. After making a thorough survey on the above-mentioned issue I would like calmly to express my position. It is harder for the teacher to keep the student focused on any frontal instruction. That’s why as with all classroom management practices, the teachers should adapt what they like to their classroom, taking into consideration the age, ethnicity, and personality of the class as a group, and of them as teachers. Much of the disruptive behaviour in the classroom can be alleviated before they become serious discipline problems. Such behaviours can be reduced by the teacher’s ability to employ effective organizational practices. These skills are individual for each teacher. The lecturer should become familiar with school policies concerning acceptable student behaviour and disciplinary procedures. Establishing rules to guide the behaviour of students is also important. Once these standards are set up the teachers have to stick to them. I agree with the authors who prefer involving the positive approach in behaviour management. But I also accept that some situations are more complicated than the others and in this case the teachers must take drastic measures against inappropriate students’ behaviour.

The Soul as Inseparable Entity from the Body

Aristotle basically believes that a soul is the basic or core essence of a living organism. The notion of a body or form without a soul is simply unintelligible. Soul is what makes a living thing alive. Plants and animals that include man have souls. But Aristotle believes that every kind of living thing possessed a different kind of soul. Soul is simply defined by Aristotle â€Å"as the expression or realization of a natural body† by which he basically elaborate â€Å"soul according to its functions† (â€Å"On the Soul†). He holds the idea that there is a strong connection between the psychological states of living organisms (their sense of logic, reason and physical manifestations as product of their thought processes) and physiological processes. Body and soul are unified. â€Å"The movements or the development of the soul is manifested through the body† thus the soul is the substance that characterized the living body (Sachs 2001). The soul is inseparable from the body since it provides essential characters to it. However, Aristotle believes that every kind of living thing possesses a different version of soul. The nature of soul according to Aristotle depends on the type of organism and its position in the hierarchy. What makes a human being authentic to other living organisms is his ability to hold rational beliefs and to exercise reason. He classified life into different levels because of the soul they possessed. Plants have the lowest level of soul, animals other than humans have a higher level of souls and humans possessed the highest level of soul having the capacity for reason. Both plants and animals obtain what they need for reproduction and growth but only animals specifically man have a sense of touch or sensory, perception and cognitive abilities. The biological nature of human beings with their unique capacities to think and feel is definitely a reward. Aristotle says: â€Å"We must maintain, further, that the soul is also the cause of the living body as the original source of local movement. The power of locomotion is not found, however, in all living things. But change of quality and change of quantity are also due to the soul. Sensation is held to be a qualitative alteration, and nothing except what has soul in it is capable of sensation. The same holds of the quantitative changes which constitute growth and decay; nothing grows or decays naturally except what feeds itself, and nothing feeds itself except what has a share of soul in it† (Sachs 2001). Aristotle opposed the popular belief in Philosophy that a soul is a separate entity that can exist even without a body. However, Aristotle believes that the soul moves the body. Sensation, locomotion, biological and eventually physical development are caused by the soul. All the faculties of the soul are inseparable from the living body except our sense of reason, since reason will not die and fade. It has the capacity to live and facilitates even after death but not perception. When the living body dies, their biological and physical development and sensory faculties will eventually stop and obstruct. Aristotle in his views on soul basically believes that soul is not a separate entity but rather it is the actuality of the living body. Soul can not be immortal. When the living body dies the exercise or faculty of soul also stops with the exception of reason of course, since reason can stand on his own even after the death. Reference: On the Soul. (2009). In Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. Retrieved February 28, 2009, from Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/428826/On-the-Soul Aristotle. Aristotle's On the Soul: And, On Memory and Recollection. Sachs (2001). Green Lion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Press

The Lords Baltimore and Their Impact on American History

The Lords Baltimore and Their Impact on American History Baron, or Lord, Baltimore is a now  extinct title of nobility in the Peerage of Ireland. Baltimore is an Anglicization of the Irish phrase baile an thà ­ mhà ³ir e, which means town of the big house.   The title was first created for Sir George Calvert in 1624. The title became extinct in 1771 after the death of the 6th Baron.  Sir George and his son, Cecil Calvert, were British subjects rewarded with land in the new world.   Cecil Calvert was the 2nd Lord Baltimore. It is after him that the Maryland city of Baltimore is named after. Thus, in American history, Lord Baltimore usually refers to Cecil Calvert. George Calvert George was an English politician who served as  Secretary of State  to King James I. In 1625, he was given the title Baron Baltimore when he resigned from his official position.​ George became invested in the colonization of the Americas. While initially for commercial incentives, George later realized colonies in the New World could become a refuge for English Catholics and a place for religious freedom in general. The Calvert family was Roman Catholic, a religion which most inhabitants of the New World and followers of the Church of England were prejudiced against. In 1625, Geroge publicly declared his Catholicism. Involving himself with colonies in the Americas, he was at first rewarded with a title to land in Avalon, Newfoundland in present-day Canada. To expand on what he already had, George asked the son of James I, Charles I, for  a royal charter to settle the land north of Virginia. This region would later become the state of  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Maryland. This land was not signed over until 5-weeks after his death. Subsequently, the charter and land settlement was left to his son, Cecil Calvert. Cecil Calvert Cecil was born in 1605 and died in 1675. When Cecil, second Lord Baltimore, founded the colony of Maryland, he expanded on his fathers ideas of freedom of religion and separation of church and state. In 1649, Maryland passed the  Maryland Toleration Act, also known as the Act Concerning Religion. This act mandated religious tolerance  for Trinitarian Christians only. Once the act was passed, it became  the first law establishing a religious tolerance in British North American colonies. Cecil wanted  this law to also  protect Catholic settlers and others who  did not conform to the established state  Church of England.  Maryland, in fact, became known as a haven for Roman Catholics in the New World. Cecil governed Maryland for 42 years. Other Maryland cities and counties honor Lord Baltimore by naming themselves after him. For instance, there is Calvert County, Cecil County, and Calvert Cliffs.

The Wade-Davis Bill and Reconstruction

The Wade-Davis Bill and Reconstruction At the end of the American Civil War, Abraham Lincoln wanted to bring the Confederate states back into the Union as amicably as possible. In fact, he did not even officially recognize them as having seceded from the Union. According to his Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction, any Confederate would be pardoned if they swore allegiance to the Constitution and the union except for high-ranking civil and military leaders or those who committed war crimes. In addition, after 10 percent of voters in a Confederate state took the oath and agreed to abolish slavery, the state could elect new congressional representatives and they would be recognized as legitimate. Wade-Davis Bill Opposes Lincoln's Plan The Wade-Davis Bill was the Radical Republicans answer to Lincolns Reconstruction plan. It was written by Senator Benjamin Wade and Representative Henry Winter Davis. They felt that Lincolns plan was not strict enough against those who seceded from the Union. In fact, the intention of the Wade-Davis Bill was more to punish than to bring the states back into the fold.   The key provisions of the Wade-Davis Bill were the following:   Lincoln would be required to appoint a provisional governor for each state. This governor would be responsible for implementing measures set out by Congress to reconstruct and state government.  Fifty-percent of the states voters would be required to swear loyalty to the Constitution and the Union before they could even begin creating a new Constitution through the state Constitutional Convention. Only then would they be able to begin the process to be officially be readmitted to the Union.  While Lincoln believed that only the military and civilian officials of the Confederacy should not be pardoned, the Wade-Davis Bill stated that not only those officials but also anyone who has voluntarily borne arms against the United States should be denied the right to vote in any election.  Slavery would be abolished and methods would be created to protect the liberty of freedmen.   Lincoln's Pocket Veto The Wade-Davis Bill easily passed both houses of Congress in 1864. It was sent to Lincoln for his signature on July 4, 1864. He chose to use a pocket veto with the bill. In effect, the Constitution gives the president 10 days to review a measure passed by Congress. If they have not signed the bill after this time, it becomes law without his signature. However, if Congress adjourns during the 10-day period, the bill does not become law. Because of the fact that Congress had adjourned, Lincolns pocket veto effectively killed the bill. This infuriated Congress. For his part, President Lincoln stated that he would allow the Southern states to pick which plan they wanted to use as they rejoined the Union. Obviously, his plan was much more forgiving and widely supported.  Both Senator Davis and Representative Wade issued a statement in the New York Tribune in August 1864 that accused Lincoln of attempting to secure his future by ensuring that southern voters and electors would support him. In addition, they stated that his use of the pocket veto was akin to take away the power that should rightfully belong to Congress. This letter is now known as the Wade-Davis Manifesto.   Radical Republicans Win in the End Sadly, despite Lincolns victory, he would not live long enough to see Reconstruction proceed in the Southern states. Andrew Johnson would take over after Lincolns assassination. He felt that the South needed to be punished more than Lincolns plan would allow. He appointed provisional governors and offered amnesty to those who took an oath of allegiance. He stated that states had to abolish slavery and acknowledge seceding was wrong. However, many Southern States ignored his requests. The Radical Republicans were finally able to get traction and passed a number of amendments and laws to protect the newly freed slaves and force the Southern states to comply with necessary changes.

Current state of the US economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Current state of the US economy - Essay Example The world always closely observes the political and economical spheres of the US. Undoubtedly, the waves in the US economy are reflected throughout the world economy. But the global recession which marked its beginning in December 2007 was a huge setback to their undisputed leadership in the world economy. US economy was deplorably affected by the global recession of 2008. The subprime mortgage crisis was the sole cause of this recession. A huge fall in housing related assets resulted in a global financial crisis. Oil and food prices went up like anything. This eventually went to the collapse of a number of financial enterprises like Lehman Brothers, Bear Stearns, Freddie Mac, Fannie Mae and AIG etc. Automobile industry was also badly struck. It was a period of scrambled economic activity and negative expansion in GDP. The aftermaths of the late 2000s recession brought about overwhelming downfall in almost all phases of the economy. Contraction of GDP began in the third quarter of 2008 and was contracting rapidly by early 2009. Capital investment declined to the lowest rate in 50 years. As a result, the US had to face political instability as well. Decline in consumer credit, real estate bubbles, personal bankruptcies etc put the US economy into turmoil during this period. The GDP decline was about 5.1%. The US government announced a $700 billion bank bailout and $787 billion fiscal stimulus package to tackle the situation. The US was also struck by the draining of capital investment to developing countries like India and China which were not deeply affected by this recession. Government measures could not yield many results initially, but the economy started to regain its stability gradually, though in a slow pace. A poll by Reuters says that more than 50% of the Americans think that US is still in recession (Reuters polls). But according to official data of Bureau of Labour Statistics, a modest recovery is taking

Language Evolution and Syntactic Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 8500 words

Language Evolution and Syntactic Theory - Essay Example Category one and two combine when considering that the "universal characteristics of language may be so because they are aspects that make it more easily acquirable."2 The evolutionary nature of language is a new category of investigation that attempts to determine what occurred in our ancestral lineage that gave rise to a form of communication that is distinct from other species. This category involves genetics, paleontology, and archaeology. However, whereas these studies benefit from a rich fossil record, evolutionary linguistics suffers from a lack of evidence. To overcome these shortcomings, linguists often make use of studies in the four categories already discussed. However, Kinsella's research is unique in that it will not rely on the four categories. Instead, she utilizes evidence from evolutionary studies that will shed a critical light on the theory of linguistics. The essential argument Kinsella makes is that this research is a step in developing a more unified theory of linguistics. This is much like psycholinguistics or neurolinguistics before it, which incorporate diverse disciplines in founding new conclusions. Kinsella frames the current discussion on language within syntactic theory. She criticizes these theories for relying on theories that are based only in linguistics and don't incorporate multi-disciplinary perspectives in their analysis. She contends that syntactic theory needs to be critiqued not merely as a means of recording observable data. In addition, syntactic theory must also be critiqued as a theory of language that must be consistent with theories in other fields. While she acknowledges that there are many competing syntactic theories, the research focuses on the Minimalist Program and contrasts it with theories in evolutionary biology to test its validity. It's notable that the analysis focuses the validity of the linguistic side and not the biological side. This seems to be due to the foundational role evolutionary biology plays in the Minimalist Program. Also, there is a continued view of linguistic philosophy as a 'soft' science. Kinsella is vague in distinguishing the exact specifications of the Minimalist Program. She writes that, "...syntactic theory tells usthat the grammatical structure of language is the mediator between signal and meaning"3 and references Chomsky as privileging the internal aspects of language over the external. While she discusses the MP's emphasis on creativity within syntactic structures, it seems that she is ultimately positioning it as a strongly internal theory of languag

Review of Enrique Penalosa's Speech Movie Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Of Enrique Penalosa's Speech - Movie Review Example According to United States Census Bureau the current population of 322 million will shoot up to 438 by year 2050.This indicates also the number of people per household will also be more. New homes and cities will be required to be build but the question is where and how. Can we build a transport system without knowing what kind of city we want? The answer to the question is building a city will depend on what kind of life we want and what kind of life will make us happier. A city defines our way of life. In building, a new city equality for the quality of life especially for children and equality for all citizens is important. An example is a bus with 80 passengers as the right of space 80 times than a car with one passenger. Democracy means such laws are obeyed but sometime injustice happens before our face for example a traffic jam with no exclusive lane for buses.in the world public pedestrians is pace is the only that we all have free access to. A good city is where people like to be out in public space and enjoy themselves. Cities are more architectural than engineering thus, people enjoy more public space in the city. A good city is where people have contact with water, nature and trees. A good city should have space for use by children, elder ly and disabled people. People should walk in a good city without fear of being hit by cars especially children. When cars appeared they started killing people and many city dwellers where forced to migrate to the suburbs. Cars took the space used by people; there was a competition of space between cars, and people. There should be enough space for people to walk and for cars to drive. Sidewalks should be used by people e.g. Walking, kissing, admiring the surroundings but not for cars to park. Sidewalks should proceed after intersections. A city belongs to people and not cars. Netherlands has a

History Of Programming Languages Information Technology Essay

History Of Programming Languages Information Technology Essay Ford states that computers can only obey instructions that are issued to them.   In order for the instructions to be understood by both user and the computer there needs to be an interface to aid in the communication. This is where computer programming languages come in their primary function   is to aid the communication between the computer and the user. They provide a link between the human language and the machine language.   There is a huge variety of programming languages and each language has its own set of strengths and weaknesses and is geared with specific applications. Even though there is a huge number of computer languages out there today, computer languages are a fairly new field, since the first high-level languages were written in the 1950s, around the time computers were invented.   The earliest computers were programmed in binary so the set of instructions was just a series of 0 and 1. The interface back then was low-level language when a computer is given a series of instruction via a program, the computer executes the task and the interface in which the user communicates with the computer can either be a low- level or a high-level language. A high -level language does not communicate directly to the computer. Rather, high level languages is a language with a series of abstractions. Higher level languages allow the programmer to communicate more conveniently to the computer. Programming languages, together with their compilers span the gap between low-level, or binary, instructions that helps the machine understand and the high level languages, which allows the programmer to be more expressive. In software development, the programming language must be compatible with the design methodology at the design stage of software development. A facility is viewed as consisting of tools and methodologies and these should be compatible for maximum benefits. It is necessary to examine the relationship of the programming language to other components of a software development facility the first programming languages were designed for programming rather than for software development. However, even if a language was not designed with the goal of software production in mind, it must be evaluated on that criterion because that is the desired end. As a result, the software development process has imposed language design goals. First, reliability users should feel comfortable in using the programming language even in the presence of infrequent of undesirable events like hardware or software failures. This is also linked to correctness software is correct if it behaves according to its specifications the more rigorously and unambiguously the specifications are set down, the more convincingly program correctness can be proved. Reliability consists of readability, writability in the language and the ability to deal with exceptions, or so that the system is predictable even in abnormal situation. Second, maintainability software costs have risen and increasingly complex software systems have been developed, so economic considerations have reduced the possibility of throwing away existing software and developing similar applications from scratch. Existing software must be modified to meet new requirements. Examples of a language being modifiable is Modifiable examples are allowing constants to be given symbolic names, or just altering something in one line of the program to be changed and implemented in many other places in the program.Third, efficiency always a goal for the execution of any software system, and affects both the programming language and the choice of algorithms to be used.Efficiency is no longer measured by the execution of speed and space. The initial effort required to produce a program and the effort required in maintenance are also components of efficiency. Language supports efficiency if it has qualities of writability, maintainability, and optimizability. Optimizability is the quality of allowing automatic program optimization. This is important because a lot of the time traditionally spent in programming is spent on trying to find an efficient way of doing things. This should be removed from the early stages of the programming. So a developer should first write a program that is demonstrably correct, th en through a series of efficiency improving transformations, modify the program to obtain a correct and efficient one. Generally, features that promote optimizability hamper readability.These three goals can be achieved by appropriate tools and should be the certain characteristics of the programming language. Technically speaking, users use two sets of commands when they program on a modern computer; one for the operating system and one for the programming language. The operating system is basically a program which is loaded each time the computer is turned on and provides the set of instructions for the programmer to control operations in the computer. These operations include logging in, loading files, displaying information, and running a program. The operating system program provides the facilities to allow communication between the user and the computer to be initiated and continued. A translation program is needed to convert a programming language to translate a higher level programming language to the executable machine code so that the computer processor may understand. The two means of translating higher level languages are by compilers and interpreters. Compilers take the source code of the higher level programming language and converts it into object code (the 1s and 0s). This converts the entire program in one go and then resaves it in its converted form.   he translated object code is then linked and run. One of the advantages of using a compiler is that there are no errors in the syntax when the program is run since it would have shown up earlier at the translation stage. However, a compiler requires space to accommodate both the source and object files. On the other hand, interpreters look at the program statement by statement and translate and execute the single statement before going on to the next. This means that translation and the execution happ en simultaneously, not separately as with the compiler. The main advantage of the interpreter is that it is more effective in   debugging programs. However, interpreters suffer from poor execution speeds than compilers since each line has to be translated and executed, whereas the compilers translates it all at once. Programs, on the other hand,   have been around since the first computing device. The oldest artificial computing device, other than the abacus, is the Blaise Pascal/s Arithmetic Machine. Before computer programming languages were made, paper tapes and punch cards which held complicated weaving patterns for the loom Tabulating Machine Company Looms by Jacquard in 1710. A century   later, Charles Babbage starting building a computing machine and the Analytical Machine. In the 20th century, Herman Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine a while later. His machine Tabulators were used to speed up the counting and sorting punch cards. In the early 1940s J. Presper Eckert and John W. Mauchly started building the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator), which was completed in 1946. Around the same time, near the end of World War II, Konrad Zuse began building his second generation electromechanical computers in Germany. After Zuse successfully completed building his com puter in 1945, he realized that he had no additional equipment for repairs or any kind of hardware development. He then turned his focus from hardware toward designing programming languages. Zuse is often referred to as the father of todays computer programming due to his contribution to the first programing language which was powerful enough to be able to express sophisticated programs. History of Programming Languages Software development process originally consisted only of the coding phase. The computer was mainly used in the early days in scientific applications an application was programmed by one person. The problem to be solved, like a differential equation, was well-understood. There was not much need for requirements analysis or design specification or even maintenance. The first programmable computers only spoke machine language, which is well known to be unreadable and tedious to work with. After, programming languages evolved to assembly languages which quickly became popular and   lot easier to work with. A disadvantage is that the assembly language is very limited since it only provides facilities already in the machine code. The assembly language gives the programmer access to the machine code instructions and the macros. The macros offers a single instruction to give a combination a combination of several machine code instructions and provide common requirements.   The introduction of assembly language in the 1950s paved the way and provided the key to later productions of of high level computer programming languages.The machine code and the assembly language are typically known as low-level languages. Assembly language offers the programmer the advantage of being able to specify where the programmer wants to allocate where the memory and data will start. This relieves some responsibility of the programmer to keep careful control over the memory. High level languages, on the other hand, take all responsibility away from the programmer. Rather, the use of variable names allow the programmer to reference particular parts of a program.   When computers were first electronically created, the limitations from the hardware forced programmers to write programs that directly communicated with the computers machine code. This was the assembly language. The assembly language implemented the symbols and number representations from the machine codes. Working with assembly languages was a very tedious and inefficient task. Assemblers created object code, or a system of instructions that executed directly by the computers central processing unit (CPU). An advantage to writing a program in the assembly language was the that it took less time to execute since it was a direct execution from the CPU. However, there were many disadvantages of writing programs in the assembly languages. Assembly language   associated the machine-language code to symbolic representations in the human language. This was one of the reasons why, it was so tedious to program with the assembly language. A programmer needed to be highly skilled and famili ar with assembly language to communicate with the assembly code. Additionally, written programs in assembly language were very prone to errors.   The assembly languages are often referred to low-level languages since it execute directly from the CPU. In order to solve this problem, a high-level programming language was created with a set of instructions more closely associated to the human language.   FORTRAN The very first high-level programming language was FORTRAN, which stands for FORmula TRANslation , It was developed in 1956 (first manual appeared in 1956, but first developed in 1954) by John Backus, a worker at IBM.  FORTRANs goal was to ease the pain of writing in assembly language.  When FORTRAN was first introduced, it was looked on suspiciously since almost all the programmers then only worked with the machine code and assembly languages. The programmers at that time had an initial belief that programs compiled from high-level language would be less efficient than those written at low-level. In order to persuade potential users of the benefits of working with a high-level language, Backus designed an excellent compiler for FORTRAN so the programs were just as efficient as those written in low-level languages. This was the best compiler for many years.   Ã‚   FORTRAN soon became popular because it provided a realistic and desirable alternatives to low-level language programming for mathematical and scientific applications. This programming language was also the first to be widely used. However, one of the limitations of FORTRAN was that it was specifically oriented toward the IBM 704 machine. This is a major set-back since the language syntax contains many idiosyncrasies from the IBM 704 machine.  From a pure programming language design standpoint this is a cardinal sin but historically, it is understandable. FORTRAN is known for its efficiency. Over the years, FORTRAN had been upgraded and developed into FORTRAN -II,  FORTRAN -IV,  FORTRAN -66, and  FORTRAN -77. Early versions of FORTRAN largely restricted users. On the other hand, the later versions allowed more flexibility, but since it has adapted, it is not as easy to use as it should be. The development of the fast string processing makes FORTRAN more of a general-purpose la nguage than it used to be, but it is still described as a mathematical or scientific language.   Lisp In contrast to FORTRAN, Lisp was first developed in 1956 as a functional language for list processing. LISP is one of the most used of the old, classical programming languages developed in the 1950s. The design was motivated by the need of Artificial Intelligence researchers for an appropriate language. But gradually replaced or challenged in AI applications by Prolog. There are very few  language  constraints in LISP.   Lists are the sole data structure and the only operations are function invocations, conditional expressions and recursion. Iteration is achieved by  recursion. Lisp is one of the very few functional as opposed to procedural programming languages.  A procedural language requires the user to express each step in performing an action whereas a functional language merely specifies what has been done.   Cobol Another first generation computer program language that impacted the design of recent languages was Cobol (COmmon Business Oriented Language). Cobol was created by Grace Hopper in 1960 and was heavily supported by the U.S. government. Cobol was originally designed to be the common business language in the nation. The design of Cobol was discussed in the pentagon with 6 computer manufacturers.   This maybe why the language is still in use even though it is very wordy and lacking in logical modules resulting in a unique English-like style that some have described as verbose. One of the advantages of   Cobol is is certain applications involving processing dollars and cents. Other advancements in Cobol include the character string data. Cobol is generally used globally in the government and military. Overall, Cobol was, and is still important because of its use for business applications. The first three high level languages mentioned FORTRAN, LISP, and COBOL were and still widely used, or have descendants that are widely used. These languages, with their diverse purposes, set the foundation for most of todays programming languages. BASIC Once the use of high-level languages became more widespread, programmers wanted to create   a programming language that would serve as an easy introduction to FORTRAN.   As a result, BASIC was designed by Thomas Kurtz and John Kemeny   at Dartmouth College in 1963-1964 as an easy and interactive language. However, now BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) is the most used language on microcomputers.The main purpose was to be a simple introduction which would prepare students to use FORTRAN later. BASIC was easier to program and had a user-friendly syntax than FORTRAN. The only aspect in which FORTRAN is better than BASIC is that it FORTRAN has more advanced features. BASIC is a general purpose language.Since the earliest use of BASIC was in education, the original language was fairly primitive and had only single variable names. However, people discovered that BASIC could be used as an applications programming language.   Interestingly enough, BASIC was not very popular when it first came out. However, microcomputers adopted BASIC as the preferred language since it was an interpretive language. Also, BASIC, in new forms, is still widely used. For example, BASIC is the foundation and large influence for languages like Microsoft Visual Basic and the object-oriented language Visual Basic .NET. Algol-60   Many other programs sprang up to improve the FORTRAN language. Algol-60 was created in  1958 as an improvement of FORTRAN . Then it was then redesigned, improved, and the final report was published in 1960. The key features of Algol-60 are that the syntax and the semantics are more orthogonal and that the language syntax is defined formally. This language is one of the most ingenious language definition efforts in the early days of programming languages, but never received widespread acceptance. The main language innovations are that Algol implemented a nested block structure, where code sequences and their associated declarations could be grouped into blocks without the need to be separate, explicitly named procedures. Also, Algol featured lexical scoping where a block can consist of private variables, procedures and functions but is invisible to code outside of the block, which is mainly information hiding. It is argued that Algol 60 is an obvious milestone to the development of programming languages because of its introduction of key concepts and its first use of formal notation for syntax. A large portion of the theoretical, practical and compiler work since Algols introduction has used Algol as the foundation. The main flaws, however, were the omission of IO and to a lesser degree the costly parameter passing method By Name. There are many improvements to the Algol-60 such as the Algo-W which was designed in the mid 1960s. Algol-W is very closely related to the Algol-60 even though they are not compatible with each other. The greatest difference between the Algol-W and the Algol-60 was that parameters no longer passes by name and that the For Statement was redesigned. The next three programming languages Pascal, C and Prolog, developed in 1970 and 1972 respectively, are some of the key languages of the period of a boom of programming languages, though C and Prolog spawned meaningful descendant languages. Most importantly, this period was when language paradigms, or certain styles were created. The paradigms are object-oriented programming, imperative programming, logic programming, and functional programming, and some may add the concurrent and database paradigms. This period of programming development also spurred the great goto and structured programming debate where structured programming forced structure on the programmer in language development. However, there is a general consensus that the goto statement should not be used because it has the potential of making programs hard to read because a user will have to jump around in a program to search for all the targets of goto statements and the existence of goto statements complicates automat ic optimization. Pascal One of the largest criticisms with the early computer programming languages were that it was not portable. Languages like BASIC was non-standard in nature. BASIC programs written in one system   often had to be completely rewritten for another make of a computer. To solve this problem, Pascal was designed between 1968 and 1970 by Niklaus Wirth of Zurich. Pascal was strongly influenced by Algo-w, a close relative to Algo-60. Pascal was intended as a teaching tool for illustrating the proper design data structures and structured statements. One of the greatest advantages in Pascal is its portability. Unlike FORTRAN and BASIC, Pascal has a self-compiler which allows programs in Pascal to be moved from different systems. Additionally, Pascal was so well-suited for compiler writing that the CDC-660 compiler could translate the whole compiler in a few seconds. Pascal is also a well structured language because it allows a series of statement to be grouped together,   their programs are made to be very readable,   and they have a provision of versatile procedure and function facilities. Mayer (1988) states that Pascal is a too good a language for the modest aim for which it was invented (p. 10). The greatest limitations however, was that it was not designed with a specific area of application in mind. Therefore, Pascal is more of a general purpose language but lacks special features for particular application. C The programming language C was created by Dennis Ritchie in 1972. It is a general-purpose, not very high level language and   mainly used as the systems language for the operating system UNIX. The chief design goal of C was to be a tool for working programmers, and therefore useful. C is a very popular language for the development of applications since it is flexible, convenient, powerful, efficient, and portable. Since it is a modern language, C provides the comprehensive range of control structures needed to allow well-structured programs to be written. C does not behave like a typical high level language because it offers features similar to low level languages since it is very similar to the source code. Basically, C is a systems language that features low level access with high level operators. Prolog Prolog is a non-procedural language with a focus on logic programming. In a Prolog program, it is not only necessary to express how a problem is to be solved but its not even possible to express this. The programmer specifies only what has to be done and Prolog does the rest the program requires a data base of facts or knowledge the programmer will ask questions and Prolog responds with the list of all possible correct answers that are inferred from the data base of facts. Prologs clauses for establishing the data base can be executed in any order they can be run in parallel. As a result, Pascal became a natural candidate as the systems language on the Japanese fifth generation supercomputers, or inference engines because Pascal achieves considerable speed even though a typical, single Prolog operation consumes a lot of processor time. In general, Pascals main use was for general and educational purpose and supported structured programming. The next two programs, in particular Ada, reflect the period of language design where scaling up to large systems was big with the use of modules which also increased the use of generics, or generic programming constructs, which are parameterized modules. Also, the reduced instruction set computer (RISC) movement gave rise gearing hardware design from assembly programmers and for compilers resulting in more focus in compilation technology for high level programming languages. Ada In the 1980s additional computer program languages were created to match with the speed and efficiency advancement of the computer. In  1983   after almost a decade of careful study of previous errors in programming language design – promising  Ada  introduced. Ada was expected by some in the computer science field to be the first language with the potential of becoming the universal, almost exclusive language of the future for embedded systems. The focus of the design of Ada was driven by the U.S. Department of Defense, who wanted a program that would reduce the number of military standard languages.  Ada had  the unique advantage of having been defined as an American National Standard before any implementation became available, saving it from a proliferation of corrupted language versions.   Ada  incorporates Pascals best ideas and corrected errors and omissions and has a much wider range of applications than Pascal   also  Ada  is strongly typed.  Ad as  problems are that IO is not defined as part of the language etc. In general, Adas intended purpose was to be a general purpose, real-time language with embedded applications. C ++ Another computer program language that object-oriented and systems programming designed int he 1980s is C++. C++ was unique in that it tried to mix in the high-level language features with low-level language features, making it a medium-level language. C++ was created by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1979 originally as C with Classes. In 1983, the name was changed to C ++. C++ is one of the most popular languages ever created and is widely used in the software industry. C++ is based off of C and it even compatible with C. The improvements of C++ from C is the addition of classes, exception handling, virtual functions, operator overloading, user-controlled free-store memory control, and improved type checking. Stroustrup designed C ++ as the ideal program to work with software. When  Stroustrup was working in Software Development, he found that the program Simula had very useful features, but the program was too slow to use. Heavily influenced by Simula, he based his improvements of C on fea tures in Simula and combined it with the speed and efficiency of C. However, there are some major criticisms of C++. Critics argue that C++ is too complicated. The language definition document of C ++ is almost three times as long as the language definition of C. Other drawbacks of C++ are that there are no features that create multi-threaded software and lacks a garbage collection. JAVA JAVA was created to simplify C ++ and was created due to the rise of the Web. JAVA was developed by James Gosling in 1991, and released in 1995. JAVA s syntax is heavily derived from C ++, but has a much simpler object model and has less low-level facilities.   Ã‚  The five goals of JAVA are: 1) Simple, object oriented, and familiar 2) Secure 3) Architecture neutral and portable 4) High performance 5) Interpreted, threaded, and dynamic.   In contrast to C ++, JAVA is  object-oriented, platform-independent, multi-threaded.   JAVA is used as a foundation of Web, network services, applications, and many embedded devices in addition to the programming language HTML. Another feature of JAVA is that it allows programmers to write software on one platform, also know as the hardware architecture, and run it on another platform. Overall, JAVA meets most its goals, it is familiar since it is closely related to C++ and its platform allows for JAVAs programs to be portable. It has features that are lacking in C ++ such as an automatic garbage collector to manage the Internet. One of the major drawbacks of JAVA, however, is that its run time is a bit slow. Also, the majority of JAVA is opened sourced. JAVA is one of the many new languages that appeared in the 1990s in response to the boom of the Internet. All the developed languages of this time were object-oriented languages. Other languages introduced at this time were PHP a nd Python. Convergence some languages may reach a dead end. The evolution of languages is convergence the space of possibilities is smaller and partly because mutations are not random language designers deliberately incorporate ideas from other languages. Current Issues with Programming Languages With the growing open source community, almost anyone can develop a programming language. However, this poses several problems. Graham explains that this may result in a type of developed language called top-heavy, which is a language with a poorly designed inner core but has very powerful libraries of code to solve for specific problems so the libraries are vastly more important than the core language. Also, Bjarne Stroustrup, the inventor of C++, points out some of the current issues with modern programming languages and software development. These days, average pieces of code have poor structure and programmers clearly dont think deeply about correctness, algorithms, data structures or maintainability. He said that today, most people dont actually read code. Developers concentrate on getting the job done by excessively using brute force and testing, though these are usually not enough. They become skilled in building reliable systems out of unreliable parts, and somehow, the syst em shapes into something minimally acceptable, even though the developers dont know how or why. The issue here is that developers need to pursue more correct, solid and secure systems instead of going the cheapest and fastest route that contain a lot of bugs. Today, developers are undereducated and under trained.   Programming languages should not be more complex than necessary, but they should not be decreased in level of expressiveness to serve people who can hardly understand the real problem to be solved and the concepts. Another issue is that it is difficult to implement incremental change directly related to real-world systems in academia. Theory and practice rarely meet researchers gear away from real-world software development to academic topics, and many developers ignore research results. If this could change, then possibly Stroustrups criticisms of todays development could change so that developers are more educated and develop more correct, maintainable and efficient code. More specifically, a current issue with programming languages is security and reliability. There are mechanisms being developed and implemented to add safety to languages like extended static checking, information flow control and static thread safety. A program is considered thread safe if it functions correctly during simultaneous execution by multiple threads so that there is no unwanted interaction between threads. Type safety and access control are also    Why are there so many programming languages? There are more than 8,500 total programming languages, according to HOPL (History Of Programming Languages). As demonstrated previously, the many thousand programming languages developed over the years is a result of the growing number of applications and uses for languages and also updated and revised versions of existing programming languages. Over the past years, more and more programming languages have been developed for application in different areas like nuclear power plants or patient monitoring systems, etc. Also, more and more programming languages have been developed for users with little or no computer background. Most programming languages, as mentioned before, are descendants of already existing ones (more economically feasible than creating new languages). One may argue that there is a self-perpetuating cycle that leads to the development of programming languages. Developers notice shortcomings in using their current programming language, make a list of the current annoyances and they look for a new, little known language that has a lot fewer of these annoyance. Then, the developers will drive the development   of the new language by contributing code, writing powerful libraries and spreading the word of their newly developed language so that it is implemented in their workplace and then after a while, these developers will notice shortcomings in their current programming language leading into the cycle. However, even though a newly developed programming language gets rid of shortcomings of its ancestor language, new shortcomings arise. To answer the question of why there are so many languages, computer scientists have explained the concept of a programming languages and their uses in analogies. A programming language can be seen as a tool like a certain type of saw or screwdriver that is specially designed and used for certain situations and problems. However, there are also overlaps in ways that some programming languages have many similarities or may be descendants of others. Certain classes of problems require, or can be solved more effectively with certain languages. In addition, each language can be seen as a form of expression programmers find certain languages easier to use or understand as their own unique way of expression. Paul Graham describes the notion of a programming language renaissance. Until the 1980s, only professors or corporate researchers had the ability to develop programming languages because their institutions had the financial means t